Background
The rich historic and archaeological resources of the Verde Valley are of importance not only to local special interest groups but also to the general population of the local communities and the entire state. These resources provide a tangible cultural link to the past and attract many visitors and new residents to the valley.
Only limited surveys have been conducted along the Verde River Corridor and tributaries; however, information gained from the recorded sites shows the area to contain outstandingly remarkable historic and cultural values. Many of the sites are considered to be geographically significant and also represent an important era in the development of the Southwest. Further investigation is expected to reveal many sites of National Register significance (Arizona Rivers Coalition, 1991).
The Coconino National Forest Archaeologist, Peter J. Pilles, Jr., (USDA FS, 1980) describes these probable sites as pueblos of forty or more rooms, small cave dwellings, irrigation canals, bluff-top forts and overlooks, and pit house villages. Confirmed prehistoric sites from the Southern Sinagua and Yavapai cultures can be found all along the Verde Valley. Considerable significance is attributed to the Verde Valley ruins because they represent central population segments and show the focus of man's occupation there, between 1300 and 1425, to be along the river.
Important sites that have been found throughout the VRCP study area include: 1) a source of argillite, a prehistoric Southwest trade commodity, between Perkinsville and Sycamore Canyon; 2)a cave site near Perkinsville that was probably occupied between B.C. 3000 and A.D. 1450; 3) a Hohokam pithouse village and irrigation canals near Perkinsville; 4) a possible Hohokam pit house village with a ball court near Tapco; 5) a hill-top fort near Sycamore Canyon; and 6) several large pueblos dating to the Tuzigoot phase. According to Pilles, "Many of these sites are important individually, as representing prehistoric 'towns' that controlled an area and a number of people, and collectively, as representing a prehistoric economic and political system that had relationships with other parts of the Southwest."
The following is a brief historical account of the Verde Valley Corridor area.
History
Prehistoric
Before A.D. 1
A small quantity of artifacts identified along the Verde River and at least five possible temporary camp sites identified near Perkinsville indicate the presence of prehistoric Indians here previous to A.D. 1. In addition, several hundred Archaic (A.D. 8000 to A.D. 1) projectile points, Cochise-, San Jose-, and Amargosa-style projectile points, basin metates, various side and end scrapers, and faceted one-handed manos are among the documented remains that have been discovered in the Verde Valley area. However, too little concrete evidence has been found to determine the true nature of the occupation and utilization of the land during this ancient period.
A.D. 1 to A.D. 800
Likewise, for this period, sufficient evidence has not been found to draw strong conclusions about the life-styles of these ancient inhabitants. However, two small pit houses have been excavated that may relate to this period. It has been speculated that these houses were occupied for a long duration due to their relatively large, bell-shaped storage pits, plastered floors, and formal hearths. The emergence of pottery, and a change in type of metate and manos used indicates a switch from a hunting and gathering society to a more agriculture-based culture during this period.
A.D. 800 to A.D. 1425
According to archaeologists, two peoples inhabited the Verde Valley during this period. Remains indicate that the Hohokam Indians arrived in the Verde Valley sometime after A.D. 700 from the Salt River Valley. They built shallow pit houses, ball courts, mounds, and what are thought to be communal structures, and they irrigated their fields by building canals to divert water from the Verde River. The Hohokam also utilized natural resources of the Verde Valley such as argillite, salt, and possibly copper during this time. Around this same period, relatives of the Sinagua Indians built earth lodges in the nearby foothills, used dry-farming techniques, and hunted the game in the hills. They also made stone tools and developed the arts of making pottery and weaving baskets.
Around A.D. 1100, the Sinagua Indians adopted pueblo cultural traits and began to build masonry dwellings out in the open or in caves beneath overhanging cliffs. About the same time, they became irrigation-farmers and apparently either drove out or absorbed the Hohokam culture. Members of this pueblo culture occupied Tuzigoot, a pueblo located near present-day Clarkdale on the east bank of the Verde River. Tuzigoot means "crooked water" or "crooked lake." It is a Tonto Apache name given to Peck's Lake, an oxbow lake that was formed when the course of Verde River was changed by being blocked by the ridge on which Tuzigoot sits.
Tuzigoot was inhabited by the Sinagua from before A.D. 1125 to 1400, and it was situated in an uncommonly rich riparian environment. They grew corn, beans, squash, native plants, and, possibly, even cotton. They were also active traders, and they traded their agricultural produce, woven cloth, and pottery to other groups in the Hopi, Chavez Pass, and Winslow areas. When many people moved to be near the Verde River during the severe drought from A.D. 1215 to 1299, the original 15 or 20 rooms of the Tuzigoot pueblo were increased to 92. Tuzigoot flourished for over a hundred years to a population high of 450 before it was inexplicably abandoned. Supposed reasons for the desertion have included epidemics, raids by nomadic Yavapai Indians, or possibly too large of a population for the available food supply. No one knows for sure why they left. In 1933-34 the ruin was excavated, and it became a valued national monument in 1939.
Besides pueblos, the Sinagua lived in large, multi-story masonry structures that were built into the walls of cliffs with an overhanging ledge to provide shelter from the elements and enemy attacks. These structures are called cliff dwellings, and a fine example of one is Montezuma Castle, which is located at the bend of Beaver Creek, a few miles from its junction with the Verde River. Montezuma Castle was named as such by its discoverer because of the resemblance to the Aztec emperor's architecture, but there is no connection. The impressive dwelling contains 20 rooms, stands five stories high, and once housed about 50 people. The entire monument area includes 22 archaeological sites and was once home for 300 people. Montezuma Castle became a national monument in 1906.
A.D. 1425 to A.D. 1865
The Verde River area was inhabited mainly by the northeastern subgroup of the Yavapai and Tonto Apache Indians sometime after 1425. Before 1860, there were also some Navajo in the Upper and Middle Verde area. Necessities for life were abundant in the Verde Valley for these early inhabitants who relied mostly on a nomadic hunting and gathering life-style. The valley offered comfortable climate, fresh and abundant water, lush vegetation, wildlife, building materials, clays, ores, and salt. The astute comprehension of the natural environment by local bands allowed them to move from area to area as they followed the cycles of ripening wild plants for food. The agave and the yucca were two of the more important native plants that were utilized by the Yavapai and the Tonto Apache in this way. Because of the migratory nature of these tribes, their shelter was generally in the form of caves, when available, and temporary structures made of branches and animal hides. The fine basketry crafted by the women was used for carrying and storing goods and was traded to other tribes.
Historic
European Explorers, Trappers, and Mountain Men
During the sixteenth century two different explorers claimed the lands around the area now known as Jerome in the name of the Spanish Crown. In 1593 Antonio de Espejo and his Spanish conquistadors were guided to the Verde Valley on a silver prospecting expedition by Pueblo Indians. Later, in 1598, Marcos Farfan de los Godos and a group of Spaniards were guided by Hopi Indians on a mining expedition. The last European explorer to pass through the Verde Valley for the next 200 years was Don Juan de Onato in 1604.
From 1825 to 1830 various European and American trappers and mountain men came through the Verde Valley, including a teenaged Kitt Carson. The next known white men to visit the area were settlers from Prescott in 1865.
1865 to 1900--Pioneer Settlers and the U.S. Army
Camp Verde
Many of the same things that attracted the early Indians to this area also enticed the first Anglo settlers, especially the abundance of fresh water. In addition to the Verde River, four other perennial streams graced the Verde Valley — Sycamore, Oak, Beaver, and Clear Creeks. This abundant water supply may be why, in January of 1865, nine men came to the Verde Valley from Prescott, Arizona's Territorial Capitol, in search of an area suitable for a farming community. After finding a site near the confluence of Clear Creek and the Verde River, they returned to Prescott and gathered a group of 19 to return and establish farms and the first permanent settlement there. This was the first and only permanent Anglo settlement in the north part of the Arizona Territory. The settlers proceeded to build a crude dam and divert water to irrigate crops in order to provide supplies for Prescott and nearby Fort Whipple. Their crops included garden greens, melons, beans, corn, potatoes, wheat, and barley. Although nine of the original 19 men had returned to Prescott, by May of 1865 the outpost had grown to seventeen men, three women, and three or four children.
Conflict arose because the site the settlers had chosen was a hunting and gathering area of the Yavapai and Tonto Indians, and raids by the Apache Indians ensued. The settlement was first attacked in May of 1865, and 18 men were sent from Fort Whipple to set up protection for the settlers and serve as an army outpost against the Apaches. The army troops arrived on August 27, 1865, and were under the command of Lieutenant Antonio Abeyta of the 1st Cavalry, New Mexico Volunteers.
Camp Lincoln, the army outpost, was established on January 4, 1866, about a mile north of the present Camp Verde at the confluence of the Verde River and Beaver Creek, with a contingent of 123 infantry of the 1st Arizona Volunteers. Lack of equipment and supplies, poor pay, and deteriorating health caused the garrison to dwindle to two officers and four privates by August of 1866. In September of 1866, however, 39 regular army troops of the 14th infantry arrived, and another company arrived in April of 1867.
There were several Fort or Camp Lincoln's in the country at the time, leading to confusion, so on November 23, 1868, orders called for the post name to be changed to Camp Verde. Eventually the site was determined to be unsuitable and was never completed because it was moved to its present location in the spring of 1871. On April 5, 1879, the name was ordered changed again — this time to Fort Verde. By 1890 the civilian population of the Verde Valley was over 700 and no longer needed military protection. The military was asked to leave, and Fort Verde was ordered abandoned on April 10, 1890.
In February, 1895, the military reservation was opened to homesteaders, and the Fort Verde buildings were sold at public auction in August, 1899. Four of the original 22 buildings remain at Fort Verde which is now a State Historical Park, and the Town of Camp Verde incorporated in 1986.
Cottonwood
By 1873 an 800 square mile area near what is now Cottonwood was used as a reservation to keep the Apache Indians that were captured by the army men at Fort Verde. These Indians constructed ditches for irrigation and cultivated the land to produce corn, potatoes, squash, and melons there until February, 1875. At that time the Rio Verde Indian Agency was closed, and about 1400 Indians were transferred to the San Carlos Indian Reservation near Globe. Due to the harsh weather, difficult terrain, and inadequate food nearly 100 died en route. After the Indians were taken to San Carlos, the settlers took advantage of the abundant water and the rich bottomlands in the Verde Valley to expand their production of wild hay, grains, and farm produce on the irrigated land. These goods were also used to supply Fort Whipple, Prescott, Jerome, and Fort Verde until it was abandoned April 25, 1891. Most of the farming operations also included cattle raising which entailed summer camps for them above the Mogollon Rim mountains. Cottonwood takes its name from a circle of 16 big cottonwood trees by the Verde River where the cattlemen and ranchers from Oak Creek, Camp Verde, and the mountains set up their overnight camps during this time.
In the late 1870s and early 1880s the settlers of this area had to travel a full days roundtrip to gather their mail and supplies from Fort Verde. When the first post office was finally established there in 1885 the settlement naturally was formally called Cottonwood. A general store was attached to the post office, and a "building boom" followed. Unfortunately, the buildings were quickly erected and mostly made of wood, and rounds of fires and rebuilding occurred until around 1925 when buildings were built more durably. There were other hardships endured early on in the Verde Valley . Although the mossy pools of the Verde River and the lush rainwater-filled grasses held bounty for hunters, cattlemen, and ranchers, they were also a rich breeding ground for mosquitoes. Many deaths resulted during this period from malaria spread by the mosquitoes.
Although Cottonwood was established as a farm settlement during this period of the late 1870s, it blossomed into a town during World War I, from 1915 to 1917, between the two smelter towns of Clarkdale and Clemenceau. Cottonwood was incorporated in 1960.
1875 to the Present--Railroads, Miners, and Ranchers
Jerome
A dramatic succession of events began in 1876 that would forever change the Verde River area. In 1876 prospectors rediscovered a rich prehistoric copper mine near present day Jerome. There were no roads yet on Mingus Mountain to the mine, so pack mule across rugged terrain was the only available means of transportation.
In order for the copper ore deposits to be developed, a better means of transport would have to be developed, and it was— in 1882 the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad stretched across northern Arizona. In the following year an organization called the United Verde Copper Company purchased the claims of the prospectors who had discovered the ore. Jerome takes its name from the secretary and manager of this company, Eugene Jerome. The railroad connection to Prescott was completed by 1886, so then the mule teams had only to haul ore 26 miles to reach the railroad in Prescott. However, a sudden drop in copper prices in 1891 rendered the expense of the mule team transportation of the ore for even 26 miles prohibitive. Mining was the cause of the economic boom and life of Jerome, and if it was to continue more railroads had to be built. In 1895 the "crookedest line in the world," with 186 curves, was built to link Jerome and present-day Chino Valley by means of a narrow gauge railroad. It was called the United Verde and Pacific Railroad.
The mining camp of Jerome became a prosperous wild west boomtown of 15,000 people with many business buildings and fine homes. At one time the net income was reported to be one million dollars per month. The town, situated on the side of a steep mountain, was not without problems, however. It burned down and was rebuilt three times between 1897 and 1899, and many buildings were damaged by surface ground slippage due to the underground mining. Jerome was incorporated in 1899. James S. "Rawhide Jimmy" Douglas began development of the Little Daisy Mine in 1912, and by 1916 there were two prosperous mines in Jerome. By 1938 the copper production had peaked, and the depression had hit, so the Little Daisy was shut down. Phelps Dodge took over the United Verde in 1935, but due to the decline in copper prices Jerome became a large ghost city after the closure of Phelps Dodge Mine in 1953.
Today, Jerome's economic base lies in recreation and tourism. The town of Jerome was named a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Department of the Interior in 1967, and the Jerome State Historic Park is located there.
Clarkdale
A larger smelting plant became necessary as the United Verde Copper Company expanded its Jerome operations, and a site was found about five miles away on the Verde River. A new plant was built, and a new Verde Valley Railroad was built in 1911 to make the connection between it and the Ashfork-Prescott Railroad line. In 1915 the Verde Tunnel and the Smelter Railroad were built to carry the copper ore down the mountain to the new smelter. A new community developed in the Verde Valley to provide residential and business facilities for the employees of the new United Verde Copper Company smelter, and it was to become Clarkdale.
In the same year that Arizona became a state, 1912, the company town of Clarkdale was founded. It emerged as a model community with the assistance of the United Verde Copper Company, which was owned by Senator William A. Clark of Montana. The progressive community boasted the fabulous Clark Memorial Clubhouse that housed an auditorium, gymnasium, bowling alleys, men's and women's lounges, a library, and a swimming pool. The townspeople enjoyed fine schools, churches, golf and tennis facilities, wide paved streets, electric lights, and a sewer system.
From 1935 to 1954, the United Verde properties were owned and operated by Phelps Dodge Corporation, but in 1952 the Jerome mine ores were exhausted and the smelter closed. In the years to follow the company residential and business properties became privately owned through sales to individuals. Clarkdale was incorporated in 1957.
The Verde Valley
When the railroad arrived in the Arizona Territory in 1882, it set off the mining boom. It also set off a cattle industry boom. Suddenly the western cattle ranges were linked to major markets for beef such as Chicago and San Francisco, and huge herds of cattle roamed the area to meet the demand. There were no range management practices at that time, and the range became overgrazed; grasses and wild hay were depleted, and the once spongy ground was trampled to solid ground. The drought of the early 1880s then reduced the overgrazed range to barren, useless topsoil; and the heavy rains of the late 1880s washed the topsoil into the Verde and Salt Rivers. The drought and the floods reduced the vegetation along the Verde River, cut the river channel deeper, and washed the mosquito larvae away. The valley was at least finally rid of the plague of malaria. By the early 1900s large herds of cattle could no longer survive on the sparse grass that remained, and the last large herds from the Verde Valley were shipped out of Flagstaff by the O.K. Cattle Company.
The railroads of the late 1800s and the resulting mining and cattle industry booms in the Verde Valley have left reminders of the colorful and prosperous bygone days. A glimpse of the old abandoned railroad beds or the mining town of Jerome clinging to the side of a mountain, a view of the neat rows of once company-owned houses and business buildings that lead to the Clark Memorial Clubhouse, or a stroll through Fort Verde can easily arouse a sense of the activity, excitement, and richness that once blossomed there.
State and Federal Recognition
The historic mining community of Clarkdale enjoys one of the Verde Valley's more impressive local properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the Clark Memorial Clubhouse. The Clubhouse has special meaning to the Verde River Corridor Project because many of the VRCP meetings were held there through the generosity of the Town of Clarkdale and the employees and townspeople who made it available, convenient, and comfortable for the participants. In 1926, the Clark Memorial Clubhouse was built with a $100,000 bequest made by the late U.S. Senator and multimillionaire William A. Clark from Montana, owner of the United Verde Copper Company in Jerome, founder of Clarkdale, and one of the wealthiest men in the American West at the time. The facility was dedicated "in appreciation of the loyalty of his employees during the past forty years." Since the employees lived in relative isolation, Clark strove to provide them with facilities typically enjoyed in the metropolitan areas from which many came. The amenities included a gymnasium, an auditorium, a swimming pool, a men's lounge, a women's lounge, a library, a kitchen, bowling lanes, a soda fountain, and a billiard room. Furnishings and the swimming pool were provided by an additional $50,000 bequest from the family of the late Senator. The building holds significance as a regional variation of Spanish Colonial Revival architecture, as the primary social center for Clarkdale throughout the building's history, and as an example of the philanthropy of a major industrialist.
Relatively little formal assessment has been done in the Verde Valley area considering the wealth of ancient sites. Several private interests, however, are currently working with special interest groups and agencies such as the Forest Service, Yavapai County, the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO), and Tribal governments to identify and preserve irreplaceable prehistoric and historic archaeological and cultural resources. SHPO, for example, coordinates the Arizona Site Steward Program. The program is sponsored by the public land managers of Arizona and tribal governments and provides training of volunteer members by SHPO and the Archaeology Advisory Commission. The primary objective of the program is prevention of archaeological site vandalism and destruction through site monitoring.
The two most visible examples of past local archaeological preservation through the National Park Service are the Sinaguan ruins of Tuzigoot and Montezuma Castle, both now National Monuments. Spectacularly perched atop a hill, the partially restored pueblo of Tuzigoot overlooks the Verde River just east of Clarkdale. The two-story monument had a ground floor base of 77 rooms which were entered via ladders through openings in the roofs. The Tuzigoot pueblo has been formally preserved since 1939. Montezuma Castle and Montezuma's Well, two other impressive Sinaguan sites, have been preserved as a National Monument since 1906. Montezuma Castle is an example of the cliff dwelling style village; the nearby Montezuma's Well is a unique lake formed by a limestone sinkhole, fed by springs and surrounded by lush vegetation. The monument, though parts are badly deteriorated, still provides an impressive cultural experience for visitors.
One example of a current preservation effort of a rich cultural resource is the Sugarloaf Ruin near Cornville. The Archaeological Conservancy, a national non-profit preservation organization based in Santa Fe, has signed a one year option to purchase the ruin and has launched a statewide fundraising program to raise $110,000 to purchase, stabilize, and fence the property, and to establish a stewardship fund for the future maintenance and management of the preserve. The site will eventually be dedicated as a permanent archaeological preserve and will be managed under a 100-year management plan that will be cooperatively developed by archaeologists, Native Americans, and local citizens. The fourteenth century Sinaguan ruin contains at least 54 rooms surrounding a plaza that sits atop a five hundred foot hill overlooking lower Oak Creek. It is the largest pueblo in the Oak Creek chain of pueblos, and its size and hilltop location suggest that it was the dominant political and trading center. It is considered by National Forest Archaeologist Peter Pilles to be one of the most important Tuzigoot Phase sites in the Verde Valley. Sugarloaf was listed in 1990 as one of the top ten historic properties in Arizona worthy of preservation by the Arizona Preservation Foundation. To date, the Archaeological Conservancy has established two other Sinagua preserves in the Verde Valley—Oak Creek Pueblo, two miles south of Sugarloaf, and the Thoeny Ruin in the town of Lake Montezuma.
The rich cultural legacy of the Verde Valley offers many unique opportunities to protect important historical experiences for future generations. Robert Munson, the Architectural Historian of the State Historic Preservation Office, suggests a worthy example in regards to Fort Verde State Historic Park:
Sight Lines at Fort Verde
Fort Verde State Historic Park preserves the finest assemblage of Indian Wars period architecture remaining in the state of Arizona. This fact alone makes the park important to the interpretation and understanding of a portion of Arizona's history. There is one element of this site that is not immediately obvious and often overlooked even though it is usually integral to every visitor's experience of the site. This feature is the fact that not only are the 1870s Officers Quarters preserved intact, but the historic setting and background have not changed since the 1880s. A visitor standing on the parade ground looking at Officers Row sees not just some old buildings, but the entire aspect of the fort as it appeared 110 years ago as far as the horizon. In an era when most historic structures are submerged by surrounding modern intrusions (the Alamo is a classic example), Officers Row still looks the way it did in 1880. There is one house behind the Commanding Officer's House, but this is hidden from most angles and hopefully will be torn down in the future. All other modern construction behind Officers Row is hidden from view by being down off the bluff on the floodplain below. The cliffs and hills on the far side of the Verde River have never suffered any modern intrusion or impact. Thus the historic sight lines from the parade ground are uniquely perfectly preserved. Part of this preservation stems from the fact that the land east of the river is government property. However, as the Verde Valley is expecting phenomenal growth in the next decade, the bluffs and hills east of Fort Verde will become prime targets for developers. The first house or road built on this land will destroy the unique historic background of Fort Verde's Officers Row. I would therefore suggest that a concerted effort be made to negotiate an agreement with the government landholders to preserve this land from ANY development. As the Verde Valley fills up with houses a tract of pristine land will have great recreational value, and why not have that pristine land serve double value by preserving Fort Verde's historic appearance. There is one other reason to hold this land out from development: there are some major archaeological sites on this land.
Robert W. Munson, SHPO Architectural Historian
Other options that are available include matching grant funds from the Department of the Interior which are available through the State Historic Preservation Office for qualified in- depth cultural surveys. For example, the Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe is presently using the program to identify and document the significance to the community of the prehistoric and historic resources of an area near Prescott in order to preserve its historic cultural resources and to increase local interest and awareness in preservation.
The National Register of Historic Places was established by the Historic Sites Act of 1935 and expanded by the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended in 1980. The National Register is the official federal listing of prehistoric and historic properties worthy of preservation; it serves both as a planning tool and as a means for recognition and protection of buildings, sites, and districts that are of special significance to a community. Listing of a building, site, or district affords a certain prestige which can enhance the value of property and raise community awareness and pride. The Arizona State Historic Preservation Act of 1982 has established a similar stewardship and management program for state recognition of historically, architecturally, or culturally significant sites, structures, or buildings. Several properties in the Verde Valley have taken advantage of these programs, and many more are eligible. The following is a list of some of the local cultural resource treasures.
Archaeological Resources
Hatalacva Ruins
Montezuma Castle and Montezuma's Well National Monument
Oak Creek Pueblo
Sugarloaf Ruin
Thoeny Ruin
Tuzigoot National Monument
(Other ruins have been identified in the Verde Valley, but locations are not disclosed in order to protect them.)
Historic Resources (formally recognized through State and/or Federal Historic Inventory)
Beaver Creek Ranger Station
Broadway Bridge (Clarkdale Bridge, Bitter Creek Bridge)
Camp Lincoln (1866-70)
Camp Verde Boarding House, Jail, William Head House, and Kirkwood Adobe
Clark Memorial Clubhouse (NR)
Clarkdale Homesite
Clear Creek Church (NR)
Cottonwood Townsite Multiple Resource Area (NR)
First Settlement Site (Ruin of original settlers' fort), Verde Valley Settlement, Lower Verde Settlement
Fort Verde State Historic Park (NR)
Fossil Creek Bridge (NR)
Grief Hill Road
Howard Byron Wingfield Home
Jerome National Historic Landmark (town)
Jerome State Historic Park
Lothian House
Love/Frey House
Marksbury Home
Perkinsville Bridge (Walnut Creek Bridge)
Residence on Finney Flat Road
Robert Wingfield House (NR)
Wales Arnold Ranch (Flower Pot Ranch)
(Several other potentially eligible structures also exist)
(NR) designates National Register of Historic Places
Local Trails of Historic Interest
General Crook Trail
Lime-Kiln Road Trail and Historic Lime Kiln
Overland Road Trail
Palatkwapi Trail