Rivers connect us with our cultural heritage and link us to the natural environment. Close to home, these open spaces are settings for personal renewal, inspiration, relaxation, and recreation. River corridors attract walkers, joggers, bicyclists, horseback riders, anglers, birdwatchers, and boaters. Creeks provide educational sites for children and adults. Greenways invite out-of-town visitors to meander through restored city centers and historic districts. Rivers bestow identity on our towns and bring recognition to our communities.
The following section describes the important roles our rivers play in our daily lives and outlines a variety of ways for the enhancement, protection, and conservation of our nation's rivers. Hopefully, some of these ideas may spark awareness and action on the part of the reader. The following paragraphs on river values were excerpted from the River Network newsletter.
THE VALUES OF RIVERS
• Perhaps most important, rivers are the habitat and life-corridors for wildlife, the matrix for biological diversity. River corridors that run from the mountains to the lowlands to the sea connect many ecosystems and populations. In contrast to an "island" preserve dedicated to one species, a river corridor contains a rich and varied pool of interacting life forms.
• Rivers carry nutrients that sustain our wetlands, estuaries, and ocean shallows, the beginning link in the food chain.
• Rivers are a free delivery system for fresh waters to support human settlements, agriculture, and industry, but only to the extent that we protect the quality of those waters.
• Rivers recharge the vast underground aquifers that our cities and farms depend upon.
• They are the home for fisheries, resident and anadromous, commercial and sport, that support many local economies.
• Rivers provide the free capital of top soil in their flood-plains, replenishing the fertility of our farmlands.
• They absorb the energy of floods in their meanders and marshes and floodplains when allowed to flow freely.
• They provide free recreation that brings millions closer to nature, through floating, fishing, swimming, or hiking.
• Rivers provide easy access to wilderness for those who cannot carry a 40- pound pack.
• They provide our cities with greenways that are often the best chance for urban open space.
• Rivers have carved out the breathtaking beauty of canyons, valleys, waterfalls, cataracts - the glory of our continent.
Beyond these intrinsic values, there are symbolic values that make rivers special for millions of people:
• Rivers define the landscape for most of our population: The three rivers of Pittsburgh, the Hudson of New York, and innumerable settled valleys, such as the Verde Valley.
• Rivers are the "canary in the coal mine," an index of watershed quality and early warning of environmental problems.
• As such, rivers are a rallying point for environmental concerns throughout the watershed: forest management, mining practices, roads and highways, water supply and conservation toxic wastes, industrial pollution and so on. A group can deal with all these issues by protecting the quality of a river.
• Rivers are also a rallying point for local control in the face of pressures by outside economic interests for water storage, navigation, hydropower and so on.
• Rivers were the historic pathways for exploration and settlement, and they remain embodied in our song and literature.
• Most important but hardest to talk about is the spiritual quality of rivers. As Ken Olson writes: "Rivers are refuges for the soul, places of spiritual refreshment, where the natural flow and play of running water plainly mirrors the movement of life itself."
• Rivers embody the free work that nature does for people in all the ways above, in contract to the expensive and fallible systems that engineers construct.
STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE RECREATION USE AND CONSERVATION
Background
The majority of the Verde River is managed by the Forest Service for multiple uses, such as recreation, grazing, mining, water storage, and timber. There are several designated Wilderness Areas along the Verde and a 39.5 mile segment designated as a National Wild and Scenic River. Many of the above uses can still occur within these special areas. These public lands are important resources for the State of Arizona. The Forest Service has developed land management plans, with considerable public input, for these national forest lands that include nearly two thirds of the Verde River. The focus of this project, however, is the predominantly privately owned stretch of the Verde that flows through the Verde Valley.
The Verde River Corridor, which represents about a third of the entire river, is primarily in private ownership. The large number of small, private parcels along the river greatly reduce the amount of public access to the river along this section of the Verde. There are several small public parcels along the corridor that do provide some public access points to the river.
The river corridor is facing increasing recreational pressure with more people wanting access to fish, walk, ride, picnic, and bird watch. Even private landowners along the river have expressed interest in being able to access more of the river through a trail system along the river banks.
The lands that are public along the corridor are managed primarily by the Forest Service, National Park Service, Arizona State Parks, Arizona Game & Fish Department, and Arizona State Land Department. The Camp Verde Yavapai-Apache Indian Tribe owns three parcels of land along the river corridor. Yavapai County, Clarkdale, Cottonwood, and Camp Verde also own land along the corridor. Several of the commercial and private landowners have opened parts of their lands to public use, such as Phelps Dodge, Thousand Trails, and Superior Companies (Lake Superior). Even so, existing access points are crowded and will likely become more so in the future.
Arizona is expected to grow over 26 percent within the coming decade. This growth percentage exceeds that of the nation four times. Approximately 96,700 newcomers will arrive in Arizona every year and Arizona will probably become the nation's fastest growing state. These people are coming to enjoy our year-round outdoor recreation opportunities, among other reasons.
Agencies are currently working cooperatively to provide needed public access to the river and to adjacent corridor lands for access, trails, and other recreational activities. Development of public access points will alleviate the problems and conflicts when recreationists use unmanaged private lands. Management needs and careful studies of carrying capacities must be conducted to protect the resources these people are coming to enjoy.
There are many methods to protect rivers, greenways, and riparian lands, and access and use of these areas. Not all of the strategies listed below may be desirable or feasible or may only apply in a few instances, but are offered for consideration.
Strategies for Enhancing Recreation Use and Conservation of Arizona Streams and Wetlands
The 1989 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) described strategies that could be used to enhance public recreation opportunities and conserving natural values associated with Arizona's streams, riparian areas, and wetlands. These strategies vary in their scope and effectiveness, and are intended to provide an idea of the range of opportunities available for managing streams, riparian areas, and wetlands. Many of the strategies are already being implemented on a limited scale by various agencies and groups throughout the state. For a more detailed description of the various strategies, refer to the Arizona Rivers, Streams, and Wetlands Study (SCORP 1989) published by ASPB.
Stream and Wetland-Based Recreation
Recreation Access Law. The state could enact a streams and wetlands public access law consistent with the rights of landowners to provide for public access to streams, riparian areas, and wetlands with significant recreation potential.
Recreation Access and Facility Needs Assessment. Arizona State Parks could assess recreational access and facility needs associated with streams, riparian areas, and wetlands, and develop a strategy for meeting these needs.
Incorporating Public Access into Local, State, and Federal Programs. The Governor could direct all appropriate state agencies and encourage federal and local agencies to specifically consider recreational access needs in their planning and management activities.
Streamflow Maintenance for Recreational and Ecological Purposes. The state could actively pursue opportunities for maintaining and, in some instances, enhancing flow on river stretches possessing significant recreation and conservation values.
Streamflow Information for Recreationists. The state, in cooperation with federal and quasi-public water management agencies, could provide boaters, anglers, and other recreationists with timely information regarding flow levels of river segments with significant recreation opportunities.
Recreation Guides and Nature Awareness Brochures. The Arizona Game & Fish Department, Arizona State Parks, and local organizations could prepare public information brochures focusing on stream and riparian recreation and values.
Recreation Research. Arizona State Parks and other groups could identify priorities for future river recreation and conservation research and facilitate individual research projects.
Awareness of and Knowledge about Stream and
Riparian Resources
River Celebrations and Events. Arizona State Parks and local organizations could help to facilitate public river awareness programs on specific rivers around the state.
Statewide Streams and Riparian Symposium. The state could hold a statewide symposium that would address stream and riparian issues and be attended by a broad spectrum of interested persons.
River Crossing Sign Program. The Arizona Department of Transportation and, in some instances, local traffic and engineering departments could promote public awareness of rivers and river systems through placement of signs at river crossings and other appropriate locations.
Public Programs for Streams and Riparian Education. Appropriate state agencies could cooperate in the preparation of informational and educational materials for the general public that highlights the values of streams and riparian resources. Also, study materials for elementary and secondary levels that introduce both ecological concepts and socio-economic considerations should be developed. In addition, individual schools should initiate student stream monitoring programs.
Database Maintenance and Enhancement. The state could maintain and enhance the computerized streams and wetlands information system initiated through the Arizona Land and Resource Information System and the Arizona Rivers Assessment.
Streams and Wetlands Library. The state could establish and maintain a library of streams and wetlands information.
Local Government and Community Involvement in Stream and Wetland Conservation
State Assistance to Local Governments and Communities. The state could prepare educational programs and provide technical assistance to communities and counties that wish to better manage their rivers and riparian areas.
Community Riparian Parks and Greenways. Arizona cities and towns located on perennial or ephemeral streams could take actions to maximize recreation and open space opportunities offered by these water courses.
Inter-local Agreements to Manage Stream Courses. An effort could be undertaken by state and local governments to identify institutional barriers to inter-local cooperation and to encourage appropriate cooperative stream management efforts.
Support and Facilitation of River Corridor Planning. The state could identify river areas where corridor planning may be beneficial and take the necessary steps to initiate such planning.
Voluntary Riparian Lands Program. The state could support and facilitate efforts by private non-profit organizations to establish programs to preserve riparian lands and provide public access to waterways by means of conservation easements and other voluntary techniques.
Tax Incentives for Private Conservation Initiatives. The state could enact a law to provide property tax incentives to landowners who take actions to protect riparian areas.
Landowner Stream Management Techniques. The state could develop and distribute a handbook on techniques that landowners might use to conserve and enhance riparian areas on their lands. The state could also provide or facilitate technical assistance to landowners with stream corridor problems.
Adopt-A-Stream Programs. The Arizona Game & Fish Department, Arizona State Parks, and appropriate federal land and resource management agencies could assist private citizens and organizations to "adopt a stream" for purposes of rehabilitating and conserving the natural ecology of that stream.
Enhance and Conserve Critical Streams, Riparian Areas, and Wetlands
Identification of Critical Streams, Riparian Areas, and Wetlands. The state could, in cooperation with other interested parties, undertake a systematic assessment of rivers, streams, and wetlands in order to identify waters possessing critical recreation and environmental values.
Implementing a Critical Streams, Riparian Areas, and Wetlands System. The state could adopt management policies, laws, and practices to ensure the conservation, enhancement, and wise use of the state's critical stream, riparian area, and wetland resources.
Acquisitions and Transfers. Appropriate state and federal agencies, local governments, and private organizations could acquire lands adjacent to critical streams, riparian areas, and wetlands for the purpose of protecting natural resource values and/or providing recreational opportunities.
A subsequent section describes the various types of acquisition strategies possible to protect access and sensitive areas along a river corridor.
Other Options for River Corridor Protection
The following river corridor protection strategies were taken from:
- River Network Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2. River Network, Portland, Oregon.
A lot of communities are working to protect rivers that flow through private lands. Very often, the problem to be faced is not a dam, but land use. The health of our rivers are threatened by land development, grazing, logging, mining, erosion, pollution discharges, uncontrolled recreation, and other activities. The designation as Wild and Scenic is not the perfect answer because it does not give the federal managing agency any authority to regulate private land use.
Private land use may be the toughest problem to be tackled, simply because private property rights are inherently strong in the United States. The objective is usually to preserve the status quo, to apply the brakes to unplanned development, not to undo past development. Effective river protection must occur within the river valley. Local people are the voice of America's rivers and without local action, rivers cannot be protected effectively, nor permanently. Local support for river conservation must be developed. This support must include the establishment of a broad-based coalition that includes boaters, landowners, anglers, environmentalists, and others.
Some River Conservation Tools Available
- Federal Wild and Scenic River Designation (the Verde River Corridor is not considered eligible, but the lower stretch has been designated, and segments of the upper and lower Verde have been proposed)
- State River Designation (not currently in place in Arizona)
- Local Zoning
- State Regulation
- Special Area Designation (federal, state, or county)
- Public Land Acquisition
- Planning (beginning with the VRCP!)
- Private Land Trust
- Local Organization or Coalition—"Friends of the River"
Land Trusts
Land trusts are groups that work with different people and agencies to protect land through various mechanisms. A few of these mechanisms include purchasing fee title to property, holding and managing the land or conveying it to a public agency, or acquiring conservation easements. Land trusts are being used more and will be of critical importance in the years to come.
Many outstanding rivers flow across private lands. Fearing a government "taking," owners often oppose designations. Private land trusts can be one solution. So can creative use of the Wild & Scenic Rivers Act itself, which does not mandate acquisition. At New Hampshire's Wildcat River, the local towns, landowners, agencies, and Congressional delegation unanimously supported federal designation—because the specter of public acquisition was removed entirely and thoughtful planning preceded the town's decision to seek designation.
The Wildcat River study has been one of the most successful cooperative river conservation and land protection projects. What began in 1984 as a narrowly focused opposition to a proposed hydroelectric facility on scenic Jackson Falls evolved into a comprehensive river corridor protection program based on local government and private actions and agreements. Future management of the river corridor will be guided by the river conservation plan prepared by the Town of Jackson during the study and by the congressionally authorized Wildcat River Commission to be made up of federal, state, and local officials, and private riparian landowners.
ACQUISITION STRATEGIES
It may be necessary to purchase select land parcels or easements from public and private landowners to permit public access to the river corridor and protect sensitive areas while leaving room for growth. The following strategies, which have been researched from a "trails" angle, have been excerpted from:
- Arizona Trails: Public Access and Corridor Preservation (Draft-1991). Arizona Hiking & Equestrian Trails Committee, Arizona State Parks Board. Phoenix, Arizona.
Purchase. Acquisition of land in fee simple is expensive, but provides a high degree of protection. Recommended for areas which will be developed into public rest or "staging areas," which include parking areas, campgrounds, and sanitary and water facilities. ARS 11-932 authorizes a county or municipality to purchase or lease real property for public park purposes, including trails. A landowner may be willing to trade or donate a strip of land in fee simple to obtain the benefits of a tax deduction.
Trade. ARS 11-251 (44) authorizes the acquisition of land for public purposes, by exchange without public auction. Land exchanges usually occur between different government entities, although municipalities may also exchange with a private property owner.
Donation. An outright donation is a highly desirable method of conveying property. Citizens have given money for the purchase of land, donated their own property, or granted easements across their land for the development of a trail. The owner, by execution of a standard deed of conveyance, gives the land to the public agency or nonprofit organization with no strings attached. This is known as a conveyance in fee simple title.
Deed Restriction. As the name implies, "deed restrictions" are clauses placed in deeds restricting the future use of land. When property containing a trail is sold, donated, or willed, deed restrictions can prohibit uses or activities by the new owners that would destroy, or damage, or modify the trail. When land is donated to a government agency or charitable organization, the donor may include a reverter clause that provides that if the land is not managed and used as specified in the deed, the property must be returned to the original owner or heirs. Alternately, the reverter clause may require that the land revert to a third party such as a conservation group capable of maintaining the land according to the terms of the restrictions.
Covenant. Covenants can be used in some situations where deed restrictions, including reverter clauses, are not legally enforceable. A covenant is a contract between a landowner and another party stating that the landowner will use or refrain from using their land in an agreed-upon manner. Covenants, like deed restrictions, can require, for example, that landowners refrain from activities that will damage a trail. In lieu of purchasing lands and attaching restrictive covenants to deeds, citizen groups may pay trail owners to attach covenants to their deeds. The covenants can bind the present owners and all future owners to maintain the trail in their natural state with the citizen group holding rights of enforcement. Once placed in deeds, covenants become deed restrictions.
Easement. An easement is the ownership of an interest in the land without transferring the title to the land. Because it is recorded in the county deed records and is binding on future owners, the easement is the strongest of the non-possessory methods of acquiring a trail corridor. Examples of rights granted in easements include: right-of-way across the land, sewer and utility placement, or conservation restrictions. Many easements also include access for maintenance or repair. "Negative" easements restrain the owner from specific uses, while "positive" easements enable another party to use the land for special purposes. Easement agreements should set forth the rights of both parties, the amount of land over which the agreement is applicable, a time limit, the cost, liability coverage, and the preservation of any other rights about or within the property.
Conservation Easement. The conservation easement statute in Arizona (ARS 33-271 through 33-276) adopted in 1985, provides tax incentives for individuals who provide easements on their lands for conservation, scenic, recreation, or preservation purposes. Arizona recognizes the legality of "conservation" easements and binds all subsequent owners of the property to the terms of the easements for their duration. Of course, if an easement is granted only for a term of years, owners of the property subsequent to expiration of the easement would not be subject to its terms. Conservation easements can be used whenever the public interest will be served by keeping property in its existing use and there is little or no need for public access. For example, a scenic easement could be purchased to protect and preserve habitat or scenic areas on either side of a river or trail corridor. Such easements are usually much cheaper than the affirmative easements which permit use to made of the land.
Lease. Like an easement, a lease is a real property interest which is recorded. A lease conveys the right of possession without transferring ownership. A lease allows the use of land for a fixed period of time in exchange for payment of a negotiated sum. The incentive to enter into such an agreement is that the lease does not extend for any period of time greater than the term of ownership. The agreement therefore does not encumber the property to the extent that an easement would. The agreement could be made between private landowners and any agency having the statutory authority to do so. ARS 11-932 authorizes the lease of land for public parks defined as "a park, parkway, trail, recreational area, or play ground established, maintained, or administered by a county, city, or town."
License. A license is not a property interest, but evidences the landowner's permission to use the property. It is typically revocable at will.
Public ownership of river corridors and access points that are designated for public use is essential in order to develop an effective trail network. Acquisition of needed sites should involve the combined uses of fee simple purchases, easements purchases, lease agreements, and the acceptance of land donations. A balanced acquisition program should help provide a balanced trail system. Easement, lease, and license agreements have value for complementing an acquisition program, but are of limited values in developing a comprehensive public trail network.
Subdivision and Rezoning Process
Land use planning can be a powerful trail protection mechanism. Dedication of property for trail, open space, or conservation easement purposes can be required as part of local land development ordinances. Approval of residential plats or commercial development, can be contingent on such dedications. Zoning or setback requirements are just some of the regulations which can direct and limit development along the river corridor.
Given the rapid pace of development, it is critical that trails and open space be included in the early stages of development plans when trail linkages can most easily be added. A trail corridor can be dedicated as open space during the zoning or rezoning process when the landowner or developer is most willing to negotiate. Make sure that your local parks and planning departments work well together.
Check your municipal ordinance to see if it incorporates open space and trail needs in the land use rezoning procedures section. Communities can require developers to include trail corridors in their development plans by establishing a local trail ordinance through ARS 11-806.01 (E). Pima County has developed its own trails plan and needed ordinances (including a floodplain and erosion hazard management ordinance that authorizes floodways to be used for private and public recreational uses) and is a good contact for other interested counties.
Other types of zoning mechanisms include equestrian zoning, clustering, planned unit development, and density transfers.
Funding
Only with proper funding can adequate access and corridors be acquired, developed, maintained, and managed. You must address the issue of financial support in order to have river and trail access that meets your needs. Keep in mind that funding sources will vary from year to year as new legislation is passed and existing funding sources are exhausted. The following are examples of potential funding sources:
Federal Funding
Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF). In the past, one of the most significant funding sources for state and local park acquisitions and recreation development has been the federal Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF). It is a 50/50 matching grant-in-aid program. It is administered by the National Park Service and Arizona Outdoor Recreation Coordinating Commission. Since 1965, Arizona has received more than 44 million dollars in matching grant assistance to over 700 projects at the state, county, and local level, enabling development of thousands of public outdoor recreation areas. The last ten years have seen a steady decline in funding; in 1990, Arizona received only $260,000 in LWCF monies.
USDA Forest Service's Challenge Cost Share Program. This program is a successful example of stretching limited federal dollars by attracting outside funding and support from potential partners. To participate, an organization or individual must make a contribution equal in value to that of the Forest Service. The Forest Service's and the partner's contributions can include funding, labor, equipment, or technical skills.
State Funding
Arizona Heritage Fund. In November, 1990, Arizonans overwhelmingly supported passage of the Arizona Heritage Trust Fund Proposition. This program commits $20 million annually to the Arizona State Parks Board and the Arizona Game & Fish Department for outdoor recreation, trails, park acquisition and development, historic preservation, environmental education, natural area and habitat acquisition and management, access, and urban wildlife enhancement. Many of the components include a matching grant program to make a portion of the monies available to local governments and groups.
State Lake Improvement Fund (SLIF). While primarily used to develop and improve boating facilities at Arizona's lakes, a portion of the monies are targeted for improvements along inland rivers and streams. Matching grants are available for river access site development. The Arizona Outdoor Recreation Coordinating Commission administers this fund.
State Trails Grant Fund. In 1989, the Arizona Legislature passed ARS 41-511.22 which provides the basic authority for the establishment of a state trails system. The statute established a fund to consist of appropriations, gifts, grants, donations, and sale of materials to be used for the improvement of trails. At present, no money has been appropriated for this fund which would be managed by ASPB.
Arizona Conservation Corps (ACC). The ACC provides employment, educational, and personal development opportunities for young adults ages 18-25 engaged in conservation and community service projects for a variety of public and non-profit organizations. Started in 1990, the ACC is new to Arizona. Future projects may involve trail building, revegetation of river corridors, and assisting in construction of park and recreation facilities. With the new ACC, Arizona has the means to develop our youth, and, at the same time, protect and enhance our environment. The program is administered within ASPB.
Other possibilities to consider are local funding, general appropriation, taxes, bonding bills, fees, and gifts donations.
ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PROTECTING RIVERS
The following information has been excerpted from:
- Economic Impacts of Protecting Rivers, Trails, and Greenway Corridors: A Resource Book. 1990. Rivers, Trails, and Conservation Assistance Program, National Park Service.
Real Property Values
Greenway corridors provide a variety of amenities, such as attractive views, open space preservation, and convenient recreation opportunities. People value these amenities. This can be reflected in increased property values and increased marketability for property located near open space. Developers also recognize these values and incorporate open space into planning, design, and marketing new and redeveloped properties.
A study of property values near greenbelts in Boulder, Colorado, noted that housing prices declined an average of $4.20 for each foot of distance from a greenbelt up to 3,200 feet. In one neighborhood, this figure was $10.20 for each foot of distance. The same study determined that, other variables being equal, the average value of property adjacent to the greenbelt would be 32 percent higher than those 3,200 feet away (Correl, Lillydahl, and Singell, 1978). An increase in property values generally results in increased property tax revenues for local governments. Many arguments made for park and open space investment claim these acquisitions pay for themselves in a short period of time, due in part to increased property tax revenues from higher values of nearby properties.
Expenditures by Residents—Leisure, a Spending Priority
Leisure is often considered to be discretionary, or free time, away from work and other responsibilities, where participants choose and control their activities. Leisure activities can vary from mountain climbing, walking for health, or watching a football game on television. Outdoor recreation is a major component of leisure. Leisure and recreation expenditures can account for a substantial part of people's discretionary spending. In 1982, people spent more on leisure and recreation than the U.S. Government spent on national defense or housing construction. How much outdoor recreation and leisure is attributable to the activities pursued along greenways, rivers, and trails? Greenways are likely to provide increased opportunities for the more popular outdoor recreation activities.
A greenway project can attract residents not only to the greenway, but also to nearby businesses, and encourage residents to purchase recreation-related equipment and services. These greenway-related expenditures help support the local economy through generation of employment and income.
Activities include fish and wildlife-related recreation, river boating, trail-related recreation, and traditional park pursuits. According to the FWS, 77 percent of the U.S. population take part in wildlife-related recreation each year. Annual expenditures by these participants in 1985 were $55.7 billion. Sport fishing is one of the most popular outdoor recreation activities in the United States. A steady increase in fishing has been occurring nationwide. Viewing wildlife was another rapidly growing activity in the 1980s and is the most common form of wildlife recreation. Birdwatchers alone contributed $27 million in wages and business income to California's economy in 1987 (Loomis and Unkel, 1989). Increase in wildlife viewing should continue to increase over the next decade in areas where urbanization, education, and income levels continue to rise.
Recreational river boating is one of the nation's most popular outdoor activities and includes rafting, rowing, kayaking, canoeing, motorboating, and more recently jetskiing. In the last two decades a dramatic growth in whitewater boating has been evidenced (Shelby and Lime, 1986). Use of wild and scenic rivers in national forests more than doubled in the six years between 1976 and 1984 (Feuchter, 1984).
In Colorado, river running brings in more than $50 million annually to the state's economy and fishing contributes over $1 billion annually (Finken, 1988). Americans purchased over 90,000 canoes in 1988, a fourteen percent increase over purchases in 1985 (Ingrassia, 1989). Canoeing by residents and visitors contributes $20.1 million per year to the Arkansas economy (Wilson, 1986). It has been forecasted that there will be participation by a wider segment of society in river boat activities and that there will be increased representation by family groups. There is also likely to be longer participation throughout people's lifetimes, increased numbers of participants from older age groups, and increased sport expertise and equipment ownership. These trends are expected to increase the demand for quality river trips and for challenging whitewater experiences, technical innovation in creating new river equipment, better skill and safety instruction, and more sponsored events (Lime, 1984).
Much of the population enjoys trail-related recreation such as: walking for pleasure and health, jogging, hiking, volksmarching, bicycling, horseback riding, and cross-country skiing. Research has shown walking and hiking have played a significant role in nationwide growth in outdoor recreation. There are over 26 million day hikers in the U.S., and over half the American public says they walk for pleasure (Spitzer, 1988). The rate of participation in bicycling tripled since the early 1960s. Since the 1960s, participation in horseback riding has been fairly constant. Horseback riding is a very high expenditure activity.
Commercial Uses
Greenways can provide business opportunities, locations, and resources for commercial activities. These activities may include on-site concessions, permittees, partnerships between the managing agency and other groups, special events, and commercial filming activities. Compatible business ventures can provide a wide range of visitor services and facility improvements.
Along the lower Colorado River, thirteen concessionaires under permit to the BLM generate more than $7.5 million annually on gross receipts, with a major spinoff effect in the local economy (BLM, 1987). Revenues may also be generated through agricultural leases within a greenway. The California Fish & Game Department generated revenues for recreation and habitat improvement for the endangered Aleutian Canada Goose by leasing lands for cattle grazing.
Special events, such as Verde River Days, not only can generate revenues to sponsors and the community, but promote the greenway itself to residents and visitors.
Agency Expenditures
The managing agency supports the local economy by providing jobs and purchasing supplies and services to develop, operate, and maintain the greenway and related improvements. Employment generated by a greenway project can be targeted by the managing agency to benefit particular needs of the community, such as youth employment.
Tourism
Greenways, rivers, and trails which attract visitors from outside the local area can stimulate the local economy. Travel and tourism is the leading employer in several states and has been predicted to be the leading industry in the U.S. and the world by the year 2000. Expenditures for travel and tourism impact transportation, lodging, eating establishments, retail, and service businesses. These expenditures support jobs, personal income, and government tax revenues. Travel industry employment for 1989 increased by nearly 3 million jobs from 1988. A greenway, which provides local opportunities and enhances tourist draw, can be an important asset to your community. Recent trend analyses show that weekend trips to nearby areas are on the increase, while the traditional two-week summer vacation is on the decline.
Outdoor recreation, and natural, historical, and cultural resources are increasingly important attractions for travellers. Recreational and environmental tourism, as well as historic and cultural, can be very relevant to greenway projects. Greenways often link together cultural and natural resources. Environmental-minded travel or ecotourism, in which the attraction is nature and conservation has also emerged during the 1980s and is expected to increase during the 1990s.
A poll commissioned by the President's Commission of American Outdoors found that natural beauty was the single most important factor for tourists in selecting a site for outdoor recreation. In a recent report, the governors of five New England states officially recognized open space as a key element in the "quality of life" in their region. They credited "quality of life" as providing the foundation of a multi-billion dollar tourism industry and bringing rapid economic growth to the region.
In 1988, 75 percent of all travel was for pleasure. Travellers are increasingly attracted to educational-oriented experiences provided by natural, and cultural sites. One of the fastest growing areas of tourism includes cultural community festivals, events, and competitions. This will be a boon to community-based tourism. Greenways and trails can provide a link between historic and cultural sites.
Greenways, rivers, and trails can have varied levels of tourist draw. They can be travel destinations in themselves, encourage area visitors to extend their stay in the area or enhance business and pleasure visits. If visitors extend their trip an extra night to visit a greenway, the additional night's lodging and meals can be attributed to the greenway. The San Antonio Riverwalk is considered the anchor of the tourism industry in San Antonio, Texas. Tourism is the second largest economic sector in the city, accounting for $1.2 billion annually. The Gauley River is a high quality whitewater rafting and kayaking resource in West Virginia. It is growing in popularity and increasing its economic impact in the region. The rafters, during a very short season, generate $20 million in economic activity in the region.
Tour operators, outfitters, and guides are important to local economies due to the expenditures their businesses generate, the fees they pay to operate, and their advertising and promotion of local resources. An Oregon study of guides and packers indicates that in 1986, the industry in Oregon (for river, land, and marine activities) had a direct economic impact of $42.5 million. This resulted in a total economic impact of $300 million (BLM, 1987). For every $1 paid to canoeing outfitters, customers spent $5 for gas, groceries, restaurants, campgrounds, and other lodging. Seventy canoe liveries in Florida generate $38.5 million per year (Stout, 1986). Commercial river outfitters are estimated to account for $70 million annually in Colorado.
The actual amount spent by greenway visitors at businesses within your local economy represents only a portion of the total economic activity resulting from this spending. For instance, greenway visitors purchase goods and services from local businesses. In turn, these businesses and their employees purchase goods and services from other businesses, thereby creating a chain reaction. Therefore, an increase in visitor expenditures is likely to impact related sectors in the economy.
Economic Effects of Greenway Expenditures
DIRECT EFFECTS
Purchases by greenway users
+
INDIRECT EFFECTS
Purchases of inputs by the producers
of greenway-related products and services
+
INDUCED EFFECTS
Purchases by households who receive wages from producers
of greenway-related products and services
=
TOTAL ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF
GREENWAY EXPENDITURES
Corporate Relocation
Many communities want to attract new, expanding, or relocating businesses to their area in order to increase their employment and tax bases. The importance of quality of life in an area is increasingly cited as a major factor in corporate location decisions. One aspect of quality of life is a location with convenient access to natural settings, recreational and cultural opportunities, and open space.
A survey of 71 economists rated factors for Arizona's attractiveness as a place to live, work, vacation, retire, and locate future plants and corporate headquarters. The strongest factors contributing to Arizona's positive image were climate, job opportunities, and open space including abundant outdoor recreation opportunities. Seventy firms relocated or expanded their businesses in Arizona, creating 27,800 jobs and $970 million in indirect salaries and wages. Chief executive officers of these firms said they chose Arizona for its "outdoor lifestyle and recreation opportunities" (Valley National Bank, 1980).
Public Cost Reduction
Conservation of greenways, rivers, trails may result in reduced costs to local governments and other public agencies. By conserving a greenway corridor rather than permitting intensive development, local agencies may reduce costs for public services such as sewers, roads, and school facilities. Establishing a greenway in an area prone to hazards, such as flooding, may decrease the costs for potential damages. Greenways and associated vegetation can also help control water, air, and noise pollution by natural means, resulting in potential decreased pollution control costs. Greenways and trails may promote physical fitness, leading to decreased public health care costs.
The choices between retaining undeveloped lands as open space or allowing residential development must be considered. How this choice effects public expenditures and the tax base is often the subject of debate. Expansion of the tax base is not always beneficial in the long term. Expansion almost always results in increased public service requirements. In many situations, the cost of providing these services to residential development is much higher than the revenues to local governments resulting from the expanded tax base. A list of development costs could include:
Transportation and Utility Costs
- roads - water
- public and private utilities - natural gas
- sanitary sewage - storm sewage
- electricity
Facility and Service Costs
- open space, recreation, and libraries - mail delivery
- solid waste collection and disposal - health care
- police and fire protection - schools
In the City of Boulder, Colorado, the 1988 public cost for maintaining non-open space, such as developed acres, was estimated to be over $2,500 per acre, and could be as high as $3,200 per acre when utilities, flood control, transportation, and subsidiary governmental entities' costs are included. The public cost for maintaining open space in the city was only $75 per acre, or less than three percent of the cost of non-open space (Crain, 1988). The same seems to hold true for many industrial and agricultural uses of land. In Culpeper County, Virginia, a study showed that for every dollar of tax revenue collected from residential land uses in 1987, $1.25 was spent on county services. For every dollar collected from industrial/commercial or farm/forest/open space lands, only $0.19 was spent on county services (Vance and Larson, 1988).
Researchers have found that natural properties of plants and trees mitigate water, air, and noise pollution. Greenways which help to conserve such plants and trees provide a valuable contribution towards pollution control. Establishment of a greenway along a river or stream helps maintain water quality because riparian vegetation helps filter out pollutants. Riparian vegetation serves as an effective buffer between a stream and adjacent agricultural chemicals from polluting the stream. A study of an agricultural watershed and riparian forest in Maryland (Peterjohn and Correll, 1984 as cited in Risser, 1987) found that if the riparian forest were removed, there would have been twice as much nitrogen lost to the stream.
Benefit Estimation
Several recent surveys show that Arizonans are willing to pay to protect the state's natural and cultural heritage. Greenways, rivers, and trails, provide many benefits which do not have established market values and are difficult to price and express in monetary terms. Total recreation benefits are defined as the sum of the maximum amount individuals are willing to pay to engage in a recreation activity, rather than forego it. (Walsh, 1986). This concept is referred to as willingness to pay. Usually, the lower the cost of an activity, the more likely it is that people will engage in that activity. Many studies have been conducted which attempt to measure the willingness to pay for recreation activities. A composite table of various study results is provided below. These values are listed in 1987 dollars and are given to illustrate the range of willingness to pay, depending upon the activity. Willingness to pay may also vary upon the quality of the resource, or where the activity takes place.
Average Willingness to Pay by Activity
(in 1987 dollars) (Walsh, et al, 1988)
Activity Average Value, Numbers of
per activity day studies evaluated
Camping $19.05 14
Picnicking $18.26 6
Swimming $24.02 9
Hiking $28.49 6
Non-motorized boating $48.68 11
Cross-country skiing $16.76 2
Cold water fishing $30.72 33
Warm water fishing $29.25 8
Non-consumptive wildlife $20.06 3
Public Expression of Value
In these times of fiscal restraint, various non-profit funding initiatives, public interest organizations, and special interest legislation have emerged. This has resulted in fundraising drives and ballot initiatives which offer people the opportunity to contribute to special government funds for causes they value. Many of these involve resource conservation. The vehicles for these expenditures include donations, special licenses, fees, and tax rebate earmarked to support these causes.
Proof of support for conservation programs has been evidenced in taxpayer donations. In Arizona, state income tax voluntary contributions to non-game wildlife programs generate revenues that support the Arizona Game & Fish Department's Non-game Wildlife Management program.
In November 1990, the people of Arizona overwhelmingly passed a citizen's initiative, the Arizona Heritage fund, to earmark $20 million from the state lottery proceeds for parks and wildlife conservation programs within Arizona State Parks and Arizona Game & Fish Department.
A portion of license fees and marine fuel tax monies goes into the State Lake Improvement Fund administered by the Arizona Outdoor Recreation Coordinating Commission and Arizona State Parks Board. These SLIF monies are used by local and state agencies to improve boating opportunities on Arizona's lakes and rivers.
Numbers are Not Everything
Remember that estimates of economic impacts and benefits are only one tool available to conservation advocates. As mentioned earlier, many of the benefits of greenways may still not be quantified and numbers would underestimate the total value. Rivers, trails, and greenways should be promoted using the tools which are most effective. Focusing on the intrinsic values is most likely to be the most effective tool to begin building your constituency.